Nietzsche’s philosophy in his “Genealogy of Morals” confronts the reader with two important questions: - what value has morality and that of truth?
Truth for Nietzsche is a relative matter, dependent upon our interpretations- at first glance we might be inclined to say he is a postmodernist which however he isn’t. His idea of truth depends upon whichever interpretation prevails at a given time which is a function of power. Page 45 - What Nietzsche Really Said - Solomon / Higgins.
On the question of what is good Nietzsche's critique
of traditional morality centred on the typology of “master” and “slave”
morality. By examining the etymology of the German words gut (“good”), schlecht
(“bad”), and böse (“evil”), Nietzsche maintained that the distinction
between good and bad was originally descriptive, that is, a non-moral reference
to those who were privileged, the masters, as opposed to those who
were base, the slaves. The good/evil contrast arose when slaves avenged
themselves by converting attributes of mastery into vices. If the favoured, the
“good,” were powerful, it was said that the meek would inherit the earth. Pride
became sin. Charity, humility, and obedience replaced competition, pride, and
autonomy. Crucial to the triumph of slave morality was its claim to being the
only true morality.
Bernard Magnus, Professor of
Philosophy; Bertrand Russell, History of Western Philosophy, Magill (Ed)
'Masterpieces of world Philosophy' and notes added by G. Eraclides.
Nietzsche's consistent use of
militaristic metaphors also gives an impression of aggressiveness, but by all
accounts he was a gentle polite soul. He believed one must “philosophise with a
hammer” as was necessary to wage "war against morality".
Observations
Nietzsche foresaw, as the army of
non-believers grew, nothing existed to fill the cohesive gap religion provided
even though it was slave related. So that society must descend into nihilism-
the absence of any defining values. Despite his pessimism, he foresaw an
emergent higher valued golden culture could emerge from the ashes, spearheaded
by his ‘man made’ supermen.
But firstly one must tear down the
old idols, ideas and errant slave related philosophies so that practically
nothing is spared. His theme proposes we adopt the diversity in nature, to
be free spirits, to rid ourselves of the slave mentality. For religion had
become corrupted and decadent - humility was only exercised so one might be
exalted, to support a loathing of the body, to engage in an unhealthy
collective guilt and to exasperate suffering. Christ was the great free
spirit, vainly speaking in parables attempting clarity to reject the idols and
corrupt controlling institutions. He was the only true Christian but he was
killed – so that what followed was a distortion - decadence and the corruption
of ideals – the distorters such as St Paul and what followed. Nietzsche was
against any form of utilitarianism, which is evident in today’s institutions,
aimed at serving a common good. Rather, his heartfelt philosophy is inspired by
the free spirits of the Homeric Greeks. They relied on
instinctiveness and freedom, of inner lights and life affirmation to exemplify
the joyful here and now. Aristocratic ideals not subject to the mediocrity of
democratic governance. However the
question arises as to how practical is it to rely on the noble spirit
and instinctiveness?
By instinctiveness Nietzsche
One did not have long to wait after
his death for his prophecy to be realised, given the mass slaughter of
the First World War. But the
question is how much can be fairly attributed to his reasons?
His vibrant
and aggressive style was in marked contrast to his poor state of health.
He experienced the terrible brutality of war as a 25-year-old hospital attendant in 1870 in the
Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). Caring for traumatically affected or wounded
soldiers he contracted diphtheria and dysentery.
The aftermath was pain and
suffering became his constant companion. He suffered a complete mental
breakdown in 1889 and never recovered to die in 1900.
However, his work was subsequently
misinterpreted and corrupted by his sister Elizabeth in support of the Nazi
party of which she was a member.
Upbringing and
early influences
Born in 1844 in the Prussian town of Rocked, in
Germany, he was the son of a Lutheran pastor who died when Nietzsche was only
5. Moving to Naumburg his formative years were with his mother, sister and
two maiden aunts.
Both Nietzsche grandfathers
and his uncle were Lutheran ministers, as was his paternal grandfather,
Friedrich August Ludwig Nietzsche (1756–1826) - a distinguished Protestant
scholar. His primary education was at a boy’s school to progress to a private
institution, at Pforta in Naumburg.
Later, he gained admittance to the
prestigious boarding school, Schulpforta, which recognised his accomplishments
in music and language, where he studied ancient Greek, Roman literature and
composed poems and music.
He was also influenced by Epicurus
(341–270 BC) who talked about the need to learn about what satisfies
fundamental needs, which mostly involves a radical upheaval to reprioritise
one’s life.
“He who understands the limits of
life knows how easy it is to procure enough to remove the pain of want and make
the whole of life complete and perfect,” he wrote. Seize the day!
After graduation he enrolled in
Bonn University (1864) as first in theology to later switch to philology.
Inspired by Arthur Schopenhauer in 1865, Nietzsche was enthused to then study
philosophy, and read all of his works and studied others such as Kant’s -anti- materialistic theories.
He switched to the University of
Leipzig, to follow his favourite professor Friedrich Ritschl. The Professor was impressed by Nietzsche and
published his essays in academic journals. Nietzsche was offered a
Professorship in Greek Languages and Literature at the University of Basel
in Switzerland. In the intervening time whilst in mandatory military service,
he suffered a severe accident whilst attempting to leap-mount into the
saddle of a horse. A serious chest injury meant he was placed on sick leave as
his wound refused to heal.
Returning to Leipzig he met the
composer Richard Wagner (1813–1883), and they developed a close friendship to
visit him in Switzerland. There he also met Hermann Brockhaus (1806–1877), who was married to Wagner’s sister.
Brockhaus was an authority on Sanskrit and the Zoroastrian religion, whose
prophet was Zarathustra (Zoroaster). That association was to ignite his
interest in the Zoroastrian religion and paved the way for his later works
– ‘Thus Spoke Zarathustra ‘(1882- 1885).
University Life at Basel
Nietzsche, aged only 24, took up a
professorship at Basel despite the fact he was yet to complete his
doctorate. He admired both Ricard Wagner and similarly continued to
enthusiastically support Schopenhauer’s
Nietzsche examines the tension
between the “Apollonian” and the “Dionysian” forces- the Greek GOD of light and
reasons and the GOD of wine and music.
Nietzsche favoured Dionysus to be
an uplifting alternative to religion, which he contends focus excessively on
heaven. Nietzsche’s “Dionysian” energy, which he favours, dates back to
the pre Socratic ancient Greek culture which he regards as a more creative and
a far healthier force. He feels this dynamic element of
Dionysian influence has lost ground to the “Apollonian”
forces of light and reason. But the flowery language and
inaccuracies did not sit well with authoritative Philologists who were fiercely
critical to damage his reputation to the extent enrolments were curtailed to
his courses. Much later on Nietzsche attempts self-criticism, noting the
earlier work bore the fruits of his adolescence. He reverted to an “Apollonian”
as a philosopher reliant on the forces of light and
reason. Towards the end of his university tenure Nietzsche began to write
Human, All-Too-Human (1878)—which turned out to be a pivotal moment
which served to end his friendship with the anti-sematic Wagner following his
attack on his artistry. For the remainder of his time Nietzsche was a highly
respected figure at Basel, until his resignation in June, 1879, aged only 34,
due to his deteriorating health. He suffered worsening migraine headaches,
eyesight problems, depression and severe stomach complaints.
Later major work and style
After his early retirement
Nietzsche published Human only to Human (1878-1880), The Dawn of Day ((1881)
The Gay Science (1882), Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1882- 1885), Beyond Good and
Evil (1886) Genealogy of Morals (1887) and Twilight of the Idols (1889). Nietzsche
style reverted to the use of aphorisms as a means to mount a critique of
conventional philosophical wisdom and to write in such a manner to appeal to
the widest possible audience.
Critiques of his work argue it is a
never ending narrative of disjointed or disorganised aphorisms. But Scholars Solomon and Higgins (What
Nietzsche really said – argue on pages 49- 50) state such a
style ensures his work is more easily digestible- freed from the chains of
metaphysical forms of thinking that Nietzsche despised.
His poor physical health led him in
his quest for spiritual health - in what he describes as a constant state of
becoming which sustains him. Possibly this is why he sees no room for
compassion. But the question
arises is this a valid point to abandon the idea of compassion?
A brief summary of most of his
works is as follows:
Human only Too Human
Nietzsche's first lengthy
contribution to literature, since as his previous works comprise
only philological treatises. Nietzsche addresses his concerns of the ensuing crisis he
sees for mankind.
The Dawn of Day
The title might represent
Nietzsche's work when he is no longer under the influence of Schopenhauer or
Wagner. It is a critique of morality and suggests the need for a “revaluation
of all values.” Nietzsche talks about the problems associated
with Christianity and that it is power which principally underpins human
behaviour.
Gay Science
A polemic against rationality as he
favours the instinctive approach. That is in the sense of an intuitive style to
embrace vitality, artistry and visions that take humanity out of its present
state of enslavement. Nietzsche detests any authoritative set of values and
champions the idea of the free spirit.
It is in ‘The Gay Science, that
Nietzsche declares God is dead.
He is the first philosopher to talk
about the death of GOD, which means ( according to Nietzsche) that as
people give up the idea of understanding GOD and that reading the bible will
tell you what to do, religion will lose its grip on the culture. There are some
people who will continue to believe but fewer into the
future.
Thus Spoke Zarathustra
Plot Summary
Zarathustra descends from 10 years
of solitude on the mountain prepared to teach humanity about the overman. At
Motley Cow he explains the meaning of life – the overman (superman) is one who
is free from all prejudicial concepts or moralities - who thereby creates his
own values and a purposeful joyful life.
The people are bewildered and lose
interest in the overman.
But the exception is the tightrope
walker, who subsequently falls and dies. Zarathustra decides the only
possibility is to try to convert the few individuals who are willing to stand
out from the crowd. He explains to these few who come forward about the
doctrine of eternal recurrence - all events will repeat themselves again and
again eternally. None of the followers fully attain the position of the
overman, although they grow in stature. But they all enjoy feasting and a
joyful songful exchange with Zarathustra- to embrace the idea of eternal
recurrence.
Nietzsche’s narrative reverts to a
parable-like style, to describe the existential struggle and sacrifice
undertaken by the overman. The struggle is analogous to symbolically
scaling mountains, whilst remaining hearty, full of laughter and gaiety- to
exemplify the free spirit of the overman. This is his answer to the looming
chaos facing the western culture as he sees it, but is it too vague a
notion to really take hold?
Beyond Good and Evil (1886)
This is ambitious work that tempts
us to discern what is true and good. The crux of his analysis is to distinguish
between truth as in scientific truth and value which he links to the will- by
will we mean the faculty of the mind. He criticises philosophers who are
reliant upon “self-consciousness, and “free will”. Rather, he takes us
beyond the concepts of good and evil and introduces us to the notion of the
will to power- a psychologically derived drive from which we experience through
the senses to constitute one's overarching will.
In a nutshell Nietzsche proposes
the concepts of good and evil are not the opposing forces as one might think of
them. Rather, there is only the will to power that is the driving force to our
existence and enables one to discern what is true and good. When we understand
this factor it will allow us not to be judgmental but to aspire paradoxically
to a higher morality.
Twilight of the Idols,
Philosophizing with a Hammer-1888
Nietzsche revisits prior criticisms
of Socrates, Plato, Kant, Christianity and German culture. He contrasts their
alleged cultural decadence to reaffirm his positivism to Thucydides and the
Sophists. He invites his audience to test the idols of the past to
allegorically tap on them- “sounds them out” so to speak to determine if they
are hollow, just as a physician would use the percussion hammer.
‘Death Knell’ - On the morning of January 3, 1889, while in Turin,
Nietzsche experienced a mental breakdown which left him an invalid for the rest
of his life until his death in 1900.
Conclusion
Despite
suffering terribly his prodigious work provides a testament to his own will and
immense material to ponder, about which continues to be subject to countless interpretations.
Nietzsche’s hope is that as free
spirits one can be unbounded by the shackles of dogmatism to embrace hardships
in a constant state of becoming as part of that circle of eternal
recurrence.
Quote
“I am a forest, and a night of dark
trees: but he who is not afraid of my darkness, will find banks full of roses
under my cypresses.”
― Friedrich Nietzsche- Thus Spoke Zarathustra
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