These notes are intended to support discussions on
Hegel's philosophical works. A handy reference is Carl J Friedrich’s ``The
Philosophy of Hegel”, which includes selections from his writing on history,
the philosophy of Right and Law, Phenomenology of the Spirit, The Science of
Logic and Aesthetics.
Other reference points inclusive of Spark Notes are
attached after the conclusion prior to the discussion questions.
I have also included extracts from the November
2020 published article in ‘Philosophy Now’ entitled ‘Hegel and History’ by Jack
Fox – Williams.
The approach taken, given the very large volume of
works, is to begin with a summary of his life and then to split this summary
into an explanation of his major themes.
I conclude with the article on history which I hope
will provide further food for thought.
Introduction
A brief sketch of his life, the context at that
time in history and a summary of major publications.
An introduction to his major themes
His idea of the Dialectic.
His Philosophical idea of spirit and self-awareness
in the community.
Lordship.
Ethics as they relate to the expression of that Age
and the philosophy of Right.
From the Phenomenology of Spirit.
Human consciousness.
Knowledge.
Hegel and the Philosophy of History
Hegel and History’ by Jack Fox – Williams.
Conclusion and discussion points.
Introduction to his life and thought
Hegel was an influential philosopher of the18th
century whose works expanded into theology, logic, history and politics. He
belongs firmly in the German idealist’s camp.
A brief sketch of his life and an introduction
He was born in Stuttgart in 1770 as the son of a
government official. His entire life was involved in teaching and studying
philosophy, whose major influencers were Kant and his eminent friends such
as the poet Friedrich Hölderlin (1770–1843) and Friedrich von Schelling
(1775–1854).
His lifelong devotion to philosophy was
recognised by Frederick William 111 of Prussia in the same year he died from
cholera. By that time, in the latter period of his life his works and
doctrines had become universally accepted throughout Europe.
At that time the aristocracy was clinging on to
their privileges following on from the French Revolution, which would have had
a profound impact on the worldview of Hegel and his contemporaries.
Much of his earlier writing entailed him attempting
to grasp the historical legacy of Christianity and its cultural and social
implications, as an orthodox Lutheran. Hegel inherited a modest bequest from
his Father after he died which allowed him to pursue his academic career.
In 1801 Hegel moved to Jena and joined Schelling,
to publish ‘The Difference between Fichte’s and Schelling’s System of
Philosophy’ to collaborate with Schelling to produce ‘The Critical Journal of
Philosophy”
In 1807 he published his first major work, the
Phenomenology of Spirit.
Later, as Jena became occupied by Napoleon’s
troops, Hegel’s activities were curtailed so he worked as a successful editor
of a newspaper in Bamberg. From 1808–1815 he became the headmaster and
philosophy teacher at a high school in Nuremberg. Subsequently he married and
began a family, publishing in 1816 the ‘Science of Logic’.
After several years he returned to university life
and finally took up an appointment at the prestigious University of Berlin.
There he published his political philosophy, Elements of the Philosophy of
Right.
Following his death in 1831 Hegel’s
lectures on philosophy, history, religion and aesthetics were published.
Theme – An Introduction to his idea of his Dialectic and what it
means.
Hegel introduces the idea of the
dialectic but in a different way to the philosophers that came before him.
To more clearly understand what the
dialectic means for Hegel, we have to first understand that Hegel was an
idealist, more so in the tradition of his predecessor, Kant.
Like Kant, Hegel believed that we all
perceive the world and anything in it in our minds eye so to speak – not
directly. That is our minds gain access to the ideas of the world—made up of
images, perceptions, concepts. Both for Kant and Hegel, the only reality we can
know therefore is a virtual reality. But the difference for Hegel was important
in two ways. Hegel maintained our world view was a consequence of social
interaction. In other words all of our ideas are shaped by the ideas of others.
Hence our minds become influenced by the thoughts of other people through
language, traditions, societal and cultural influences to incorporate the idea
of the thinking spirit. To Hagel that interaction was real which prompted
earlier philosophers to think of him as a rationalist philosopher. That’s
because throughout his dialogue he attempts to provide a concrete basis for his
ideas. Later on however scholars would regard him as an absolute idealist.
Theme - His Philosophical idea of spirit and self-awareness in the
community.
This then is the collective
consciousness to which Hegel references as a logical and concrete progressive
accumulation of knowledge contained within the thinking Spirit. In short Hegel’s idealism is realised through a dialectical process
involving social interaction.
Hence, the second difference to Kant is Hegel sees
our collective ideas as evolving in a similar way as they do in any argument.
First, we have the thesis, as an idea or proposition about the world and how we
relate to it. Of course every thesis, or idea about the world contains an
inherent contradiction or flaw, which then will give way to an antithesis, a
proposition that contradicts the thesis. Finally, the thesis and antithesis are
reconciled into a synthesis, which then becomes the new idea combining elements
of both as or when the conflict is finally resolved.
Hegel sees human societies evolving in the same
manner as arguments might evolve. An entire society or culture begins with one
idea about the world, which naturally evolves into a succession of different
ideas through a dialectical pattern over time. Hegel uses the German word Geist
in his work which is translated as “spirit” in
English versions that can mean both “spirit” and “mind,” depending on the
context. Hegel talks generally about the spirit of the age, which one would
conclude uses the term in a religious sense, which however he never fully
defines.
It must be noted at that time religion and
philosophy were not separated as they are now and Hegel devoted a considerable
narrative on the subject as distinct to his philosophy. For those interested
the spark notes reference here expand on the topic. But from consensus views I
think one can reliably conclude he was talking about a collective consciousness
(that he refers to often and is explained in his dialectic) as a kind of divine
thinking spirit. That spirit eventually ensures a resultant logical synthesis
ending after many inevitable conflicts. It
must be noted Hegel’s dialectic is talking about an ongoing
process. Although the ultimate Synthesis resolves the ‘pro’s and con’s’ the
process continues throughout history to slowly become more refined according to
his Logic.
Theme - Ethical Life as the
Expression of an Age
Hegel’s philosophy can be thus summed
up as an expression of an Age, representing the given cultural expression of
the Spirit of that age. Spirit is the collective communal entity that
transcends individuals, but determines their beliefs and actions regardless of
whether they are individually aware of it or not.
Philosophy of the Right
But Hegel did recognise in the age of
enlightenment that it gave rise to economic individualism who must have
individual rights. Later on in his writings in the Philosophy of Right, he
explains the state as a modern institution will self-correct as individualism
increasingly plays a more positive evolved role.
Hegel proposes such institutions must
affirm the communal societal spiritual bond, but at the same time to also
preserve individual freedom.
He went on to propose a regulatory
regime for the state and institutional ties that might be regarded as similar
in nature to unions for those private activities that lay outside their
state.
From the Phenomenology of the Spirit- evolving human
consciousness.
Given the prior thematic notes on the Dialectic and
what it means in the communal spirit of Age through social interaction we can
now turn to Hegel’s explanation about how this sophistication arose.
Hegel asserts human consciousness
naturally evolved to become more sophisticated in the way it relates to the
world, over and above sensory inputs of objects. Hence, an understanding is
reached as to our relationship with other individuals, as part of the whole, to
be bound in turn by a single communal consciousness.
Spirit in this philosophical sense,
then represents the community. In other words the amalgam of individuals who
form part of the whole, but whose values and actions continue to evolve in line
with the consciousness of the evolving spirit of that age. The apparent glue that
holds this all together has previously been covered under the prior thematic
where Hegel uses the German word ‘Geist’ in his work
which is translated as “spirit” in English as in
the spirit of the age.
From the Phenomenology of the Spirit- Knowledge
Hegel is mostly in sync with Kant in that
attributes knowledge is not knowledge of “things-in-themselves,” or of the
inputs from the senses. He was in agreement with the rationalists such as
Descartes who said we are only able to trust the truths of the mind's
comprehension on its own. This differed to the Empiricists, who argued that all
knowledge arises from perceptions of actual objects, through our senses.
Hegel talks about different modes of consciousness
involving meaning, perception and understanding
which supplies the evidence of the world in which we inhabit.
Hegel believed all of the different categories were
real as uncertainty gives rise to new perceptions that then become
certainties.
To reiterate, individuals are immersed in the world
and are constantly mediating between the subjective and the collective moments
of understanding. .
Lordship and Bondage as the Basis of
Social Relations
Hegel agreed with the idealism of
Kant, but takes the matter a step forward to suggest self-consciousness is as a
consequence of the interactions through the eyes of another in society. Hence,
this self-consciousness involves a social interaction and
identification with another’s consciousness.
Where inequality exists in relation
to a subordinate partner or in the case of a bondsman, the Lord is conscious of
the others lesser position. The Lord enjoys his status as in his freedom over
his subordinate other, who remains unessential to him. However, in doing so,
the lord may become uneasy or feel guilty in negating a consciousness with
which he has identified in order to assure himself of his independence and free
status. Hegel contends all life is founded on this social interaction. In other
words there are dynamic and competing moments of mutual identification where
one identifies or distances oneself from the other. It was within this master slave narrative that Carl Marx drew his
inspiration to formulate his manifesto.
The question arises however that a
collective consciousness at some point in time may relish in the idea of what
later is regarded as evil- as in slavery. Hegel gave considerable attention to
the idea of slavery which is outside the scope of this paper.
However, one might want to question
his model of self-consciousness.
Hegel and the Philosophy of History
Hegel’s philosophy of history is perhaps the most
fully developed philosophical theory of history that attempts to discover
meaning or direction in history (1824a, 1824b, 1857). Hegel regards history as
an intelligible process moving towards a specific condition—the realization of
human freedom. “The question at issue is therefore the ultimate end of mankind,
the end which the spirit sets itself in the world” (1857: 63). Hegel incorporates
a deeper historicism into his philosophical theories than his predecessors or
successors. He regards the relationship between “objective” history and the
subjective development of the individual consciousness (“spirit”) as an
intimate one; this is a central thesis in his Phenomenology of Spirit -1807.
Little, Daniel, "Philosophy of
History", The Stanford Encyclopaedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2020 Edition), Edward N.
Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/history/>.
In summary, Hegel, in line with modern
philosophers, suggests one questions the meaning of history and talks about
early primitive versions to become more reflective and untimely to ideally
be governed by reason.
Hegel and History’ by Jack Fox – Williams.
In this respect Jack fox Williams article ' Hegel's
understanding of History' which appeared in the November 2020 edition of
‘Philosophy Now’ sheds some further light on the matter.
Hegel’s third way of doing history, philosophical history, prioritises thought above
event-commentary, synthesising philosophical concepts and ideas with historical
information. Hegel himself is doing this kind of activity when he famously
argues that the process of human history is a process of self-recognition
guided by ‘the principle of reason’.
For Hegel, nature is the embodiment of reason. In
the same way that nature strives towards increasing complexity and harmony, so
does the world spirit through the historical process. The Pre-Socratic
philosopher Anaxagoras (c.500-428 BC) was the first person to argue that nous (meaning reason, or maybe understanding in
general) ultimately governs the world – not as an intelligence, but like a fundamental
essence of being. Hegel stresses the importance of this distinction, using the
solar system as an example. He writes:
“The motion of the solar system proceeds according
to immutable laws; these laws are its reason. But neither the sun nor the planets
which according to these laws rotate around it, have any consciousness of it.
Thus, the thought that there is reason in nature, that nature is ruled by
universal, unchangeable laws, does not surprise us; we are used to it and make
very little of it…” (Reason in History).
Moreover, Hegel argues that evidence of reason is
revealed through religious truth, which demonstrates that the world is governed
not by chance but by Providence. During profound moments of spiritual epiphany,
we come to the realisation that a divine order presides over the world.
Providence is wisdom endowed with an infinite power, which realises its own
purpose, that is, the absolute, rational, final purpose of the world; reason is
“thought determining itself in absolute freedom.” Hegel suggests that many
stages of human history appear irrational and regressive because society is
made up of individuals guided by passions, impulses and external forces.
However, behind the seeming irregularity of human history lies a divine plan
that is hidden from view and yet actualises itself through the historical
process. As a result of the many conflicts, revolutions and revolts that
society endures, humanity attains a greater glimpse of reason.
Hegel goes even further in the development of his
argument and suggests that the realisation of reason in history also serves as
a justification for belief in God. He acknowledges that history reveals the
cruelty and sadism of human nature, but urges “recognition of the positive
elements in which the negative element disappears as something subordinate and
vanquished.” Through the consciousness of reason, we recognise that the
ultimate purpose of the world is incrementally actualised through those
occasional historical events which bring about positive transformation and
change. In this sense, Hegel presents a highly progressive view of history,
perceiving the development of human society as a dynamic process by which our
rational faculties become ever more refined and cultivated. Although there is
evil in the world, reason ultimately triumphs.
Finally he sums up Hegel’s rather optimistic
conclusion.
The Greeks were aware of freedom, and rejected
tyranny for democracy, which is political freedom for the voting set. Their
freedom was maintained under conditions of slavery – a fact that made “liberty
on the one hand only an accidental, transient and limited growth; on the other
hand, it constituted a rigorous thraldom of our common nature of the Human.” So
according to Hegel, the German nations, under the influence of Christianity,
were the first to come to the realisation that man possesses free will. And
even while slavery still occurred under Christianity and subsequent political
systems, the notion of individual freedom has become central to states,
governments, and constitutions, first in the West, then elsewhere.
Conclusion
What can we say about Hegel’s dialectic as it
applies to modernity? Did it help in providing the synthesis for European nations to adopt a liberal democratic system in
the European style, which has avoided war, after the atrocities of successive
world wars?
Is his idealism impractical or not?
What do we think of his idea of the
thinking spirit or world spirit - Do we think it exists and if so to what
extent is it evident in history?
What do we think of the idea that
reason always ultimately triumphs?
Has Hegel contributed to a more
rational view to peaceful governance?
References
https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/hegel/
https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7d5nb4r8&chunk.id=d0e27&toc.depth=1&toc.id=&brand=ucpress
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hegel/
Hegel’s Dialectics
