Ethics and the
moral compass as it suggested might have applied to the first nation’s people
Introduction
What I
think one might say right from the outset is that the Australian aboriginal
tribal systems (before it broke down very badly with addiction to alcohol, loss
of tribal oversight by elders, law etc.), strove to keep their children safe
and to become responsible members of a tribe’s culture. Gifted children were
identified early on as representatives on the elder’s councils and there was no
inherited rights that we see elsewhere in ancient cultures. In fact it is
doubtful if the colonizers ever saw the culture accurately such was the pace of
devastation caused by disease and the sudden loss of habitant.
There was
almost an immediate outbreak of smallpox and loss of habitat, to the
extent that the position pre colonization of their rich culture was
largely non-visible, except for isolated pockets in the
remote regions. In Tasmania, for instance, as early as 1835, only a tiny
fraction remained up until the last surviving full blood died in 1876.
Even
so, anthropologists misinterpreted
such things as skin types and totems as was erroneously
attributed to a form of incest, according to Jim Pouter- Sharing
Heritage in Kulin Country.
My interest in
the subject goes back to early school days growing up in a small
country town , where it became rather obvious that something was
sadly remiss in not only what we were taught at school, but in the prejudicial
talk of the townsfolk. They considered the aboriginal people’s second
class citizens.
I recall
the small housing settlement where they lived on the outskirts of town,
constructed using poor quality timber work and which might be described as a
cluster of tiny huts, many with broken windows and exhibiting an air of
isolation and neglect. So, in writing this paper, it now reminds me
those early childhood thoughts of what I imagined it must have been like, to
appreciate in some small childlike manner, a sense of the loss and
loneliness of a once rich culture now just a distant faint shadow of its
former self. But this paper is not about the social ills that led to
this state of affairs, but rather aims to provide an insight
into their rich history and to talk about their
morals and
tribal ethics. Along the way I will attempt to shed some
light on their belief systems resplendent in the
Dreamtime, which underpinned every facet of their life.
As a final aim I
want to continue to explore the idea of ethics by way of a moral
compass, to talk about how this theme might be exemplified in their beliefs and
practices. But first of all I need to debunk some of the stereotyped ideas
and misinformation that permeated early history.
A
tendency to stereotype first Nations people and misunderstandings by
Anthropologists.
Historians, up
until fairly recently, with a few notable exceptions, were prone to label first
nations peoples culture as primitive. To recap, I vividly recall
descriptions of aborigines from my early school books depicted as small tribes
of nomadic hunter gatherers, dependent on using stone and whose only
shelter from the elements were temporary ones, constructed from branches
and the bark of trees. Whilst that may have been true, by way of necessity for
the more arid areas, they occupied, it was certainly not so for the more
densely populated areas in around the coastal areas where game was more
plentiful and farming was undertaken. Evidence exists of what must have been
similar to maize harvested and stored in certain areas. We also
have evidence of stone buildings where they stayed during the season of
eel farming. Even the pictures of aboriginal peoples, taken in
remote arid areas, gave the impression they only barely eeked
out an existence from a barren landscape.
This is in stark
contrast to seeing pictures of clans on the Dorrigo plateau
(which possesses some of the richest soils if anywhere in NSW) as the
sturdiest looking group you could ever encounter.
Rather, we
were treated to oblique reference to their colorful carvings on the
rock faces or the occasional news item about corroborees or to “payback
punishment " handed out to an offender of a tribe violating ancient
law. Looking back to the 1950’s we find the first Australians did not rate a
mention in a typically chronicled “A short history of Australia",
notwithstanding an existence stretched back maybe 70,000 years. The
significance of dreamtime stories which gave meaning to successive
generations and ensured an ongoing affinity with the land was mostly
overlooked, as was their complex system of law, extensive
kinship and spirituality.
Recent discoveries uncover a far richer dust
According to the
Conversation, In the 1970s, Dr Peter Coutts of the Victoria Archaeological
Survey carried out site surveys at Lake Condah (Tae Rak), the centrepiece of
the Bim cultural landscape. Lake Condah is very different to the marshy
plains near Mt William. It is a rugged lava flow terrain of basalt rises,
swampy depressions, and waterways formed as a result of the eruption of Mt
Eccles (Budj Bim) at least 30,000 years ago. Coutts and his team found what
local Gunditjmara people had long known about – extensive Aboriginal
fish-trapping systems comprising hundreds of metres of excavated channels and
dozens of basalt block dam walls constructed over innumerable generations
before European contact. Coutts estimated that the volume of basalt blocks
moved measured in “the many hundreds of tonnes.
Another
aspect is the first Nations peoples appear to have understood
lunar and solar eclipses and the movement of the Sun, Earth and Moon. The
ABC reported that Duane Hamacher from
Sydney's Macquarie University, said Aboriginal communities
in different parts of Australia often have similar traditional stories to
explain these events.
According to
Hamacher they understood the motions of astronomical bodies and
the correlation with terrestrial events which meant they could
identify the movement of the tides and the emergence of changing seasons and
attendant emergence of different food sources.
First Nations
Society and Culture.
What
was also evident was a high degree of autonomy was evident in the small
groups that lived together as clans. But, I need to pause here and attempt to
explain their complex structure. Each tribal nation, of which it was thought to
number about 500, was designated within defining borders. Residing
within these nations there are the so called clan groups. They are larger
than a family but based on a family link through a common ancestry. Hence Clan
groups shared a common language and kinship system.
What I aim to
do is to explain these kinship systems, but I first need to explain their spirituality.
I would draw attention to the fact that although there wasn't
one deity covering all of Australia. Rather there was a common idea about
initial creation was evident according to Jim Pouter, which he describes as
Wandjinism. How it works is that each tribe has its own creation
spirits with an overlap of beliefs, (just as there is an overlap of words
between language groups) but the beginning creation story remains consistent.
By way of example, Wandjinism in
the northern Kimberley of Western Australia is associated with
the Ngarinyin, Worora and Wunambal tribes. Thus,
although the tribe’s beliefs and accompanying theology are different
in other parts of Australia, that is only applicable as it relates to
the different creative spirts. According to Jim Poulter,
the foundational belief (Wandjinism as GOD) is of a
universe created by a Supreme Being. This was made possible as
in the Dreaming. The permanence to the Dreaming creation
was that it was broken up into assorted creation pieces and
existential life, projected into the Dreaming in the form of Creator
Spirits.
When these
Creator Spirits had concluded their creation, they then surrendered to
the Dreaming, to become the landmarks and animals we see today.
Poulter goes on to explain the only creatures left with full
consciousness were human beings, so their role is to protect the
living spirit world that makes up the landscape and
is representative of the Land and the Dreaming. Hence,
when Wandjina (GOD) saw that human beings understood their ecological
responsibilities, all knowledge that would ever be needed was seeded into the
Dreaming, and the first nation’s peoples believed that had access to
it through our own Personal Dreaming.
GOD
(Wandjina) then took no ongoing part in the affairs of the real
world, but watches. Hence, in summing up, the idea
was creation was continuous and the spirit of that creation in various
landmarks continues in tandem with the tribe’s existence. It is also important to understand the
first nation’s idea of time which is non-lineal. According to elder Dr
Fejo -King the best way to think about is to imagine the figure
8. Thus, prior to pregnancy the creation spirit enters the
womb to convey knowledge. During existence this knowledge
is reinforced during ritualistic ceremonies such as during
ceremonial dances at Corroborees that prepare one for the
future and so on. The idea of a past, present and future
is not applicable, rather there is only continuous creation and
re-incarnation via the dreaming. Hence, in
summing up, the idea was creation was continuous and the spirit of that
creation in various landmarks that continues in tandem with the tribe’s
existence. Other matters of importance were decided at Corroborees
as to where to hold planned festivals when resources might be in such
abundance they could be shared. Long journeys were undertaken to attend these
festivals using the stars to navigate across well-worn tracks and landmarks.
Trade was facilitated by the use of message sticks, using symbols to support
the negotiators who could then overcome foreign language difficulties. Such
negotiations might involve the granting of water rights to fish certain
sections of the river in one region in exchange for the right to mining scarce
resources available in another.
Having explained
their spirituality and customs we can know better understand their kinship
system and ultimately the source of their
individual morals. In a nutshell their kinship
system operated at 3 levels, Moiety, Totem and Skin
types.
I will attempt
to explain how each works, but additionally I would recommend
several websites for those seeking a more
comprehensive coverage.
Moiety
According to Moiety the
Creation stories, embedded in the Dreamtime, ensured everything can
be seen as two halves, inclusive of yourself and your
environment.
One side of the
Moiety may be principally concerned with preservation whilst the other can
hunt and fish, but both are a mirror image of each other according to the totem
and skin system that defines the Clan.
A Moiety is
preordained and when you share the same Moiety as other people, they are all
considered as siblings, and hence, you are forbidden to
marry within your Moiety.
This
also means you have a duty to reciprocally support one
another, as in your enlarged family.
Accordingly, the
moiety system exists across Australia and there is a section or
subsection system with four to eight ‘skin names’. Individuals
gain ‘skin names’ upon birth based on the skin names of his or her
parents, to indicate the section/subsection that he/she belongs to. The
children then must not marry into that side of the Moiety, but
alternate with each generation. Later on I have provided a diagram to illustrate
how this works by Elder Dr Fazo – King.
Totems
The foundation
of the kinship is also the totem systems that ensures each person has
at least four Totems; their personal, family, clan and nation totem.
The Totems
provide a link to the physical universe: to land, water, geographical
features, and animals. The family, clan and nation totems are
pre-ordained but an additional individual totem will be decided by
tribal elders which recognizes personal strengths. Individuals
then are accountable for their totems and are to ensure these
totems are protected and passed on to future generations.
Skin Names
The 3rd
level of the kinship system are skin names. They define the
relationship of one another and their obligations to one
another. An individual doesn't have the same skin name as their
parent's, husband and wife. Rather It is a sequential system based off the
mother’s name (in a matrilineal system), or the father’s name (in a patrilineal
system), and has either a four cycle or 8 cycle a naming cycle. From the reference there is an explanation of the 8 cycle naming cycle
Notice
that on each side of the Moiety the children who marry will marry into the
opposite side until such time as the cycle is complete. The naming cycle then
repeats.
Hence, by
way of example, cast your eye on to the far left hand daughter’s side, to notice
the children’s Moiety’s skin Type.
Notice that Nampin is on the red side of the
Moiety (called Wuriurru). After marriage Nappanangka ( daughter) is then on the
black side of the Moiety (called Kingili ).
After
marriage Nakamarra (daughter) is then on the red side of the Moiety (called
Wuriurru). After marriage Namkill (daughter) is then on the black side of the
Moiety (called Kingili). After marriage, Nampin (daughter) is then on red side
of the Moiety (called Wuriurru) as the cycle repeats. It is not hard to
understand why the early anthropologists did not understand the system and how
it quickly became compromised with the decimation of the clans and tribal
systems.
If you
like you could now do the son on the right had side and then the alternate
other sides to grasp how the whole skin systems relationships works.
Note the N
Names are for female skin names and the J for males in respect to skin names
within either side of the Moiety.
For a
further reference Dr DAVID M. WELCH has set up a site as per the link
below to help students better understand Australia’s ancient culture, which
provides an excellent reference. The website represents an amalgam of
books relating to the subject matter. Dr David M. Welch is a general medical practitioner
based in Darwin in the Northern Territory of Australia, who has worked with
Aboriginal people since the 1970s, researched their rock art (painted shelters
and engraved rocks) and other aspects of their culture, and written more than
thirty journal articles, reports and books on the subject. The journal articles
can be found and downloaded at http://davidmwelch.com.au/
Morals arising from the kinship tribal system.
One can now
readily ascertain the moral duty to your extended family under the
Moiety system. You also have a responsibility to pass on his
knowledge associated with your 4 assigned totems.
You come
into the world with your moral responsibility already defined by your Moiety, Totems
and Skin types with additional guidance provided by the elders.
Identifying
different ethical categories.
What is
not surprising is the ease we now find in identifying different ethical
categories without the need to draw too long a bow.
Note there was
no hierarchical inherited claims that plagued other cultures, as governance by
elders was based on merit. That is evident in a reservoir of knowledge
(epistemology) encapsulated in the Law and the responsibilities defined
under the Totems, as an ongoing commitment to consistently apply it’s
principles to both tribal life and in the wider obligations to other nations.
The
spiritual application to show reverence to MOTHER EARTH provided the ethical
values as to how they must act responsibly to the land and to nature. We
may not agree with some aspects of the application of their law or its
brutality, but what does seem relevant is it ethical framework to support the
tribe’s sustainable existence ahead of the individual. Given a bit of a stretch
we might associate this reverence to the land as kind of either evolutionary or
virtue ethic, as it defines how we must look after the earth upon whom we
depend. Plato posited early training in the moral virtues was essential in
ensuring goodness in ensuing adulthood. We might liken the tutelage period for
aborigines, separated from the tribe to be instructed to the law, until such
time as they were deemed fit to enter adulthood, as a similar type of
idea.
But, I
think it is far easier to make the transition to duty ethics, since the loyalty
to the tribe to stay true to its rituals and rules was paramount.
Separation
from the clan or tribe was tantamount to death of the spirit in both physical
and in spiritual forms. This is evidenced by a rare ‘pointing of the bone episodes’
to serious law breakers, where we have the account of one unfortunate subject
who died of a broken heart. Such an event occurred during my childhood and I
remember the baffled reports from the hospital that could find no medical
reason for his untimely sudden death. I only mention this to illustrate the
extraordinary kinship and feelings of belonging that existed to be part of a
tribe.
A theory as to
where morals came from for the first Nations peoples.
As various
instinctive type reactions underpinned enhanced survival, psychological traits
became aligned to this social cohesion principle which was reinforced by
evolving beliefs. Hence what emerges towards sustainable tribal cohesion and existential order is the
requirement to adopt principals of ethical fairness to ensure optimum survival
outcomes.
The integration
of their knowledge served principally ecological purposes, evident in the clan
system that operated throughout Australia and allowed them to exist within
their designated water catchment systems,
From what
has been uncovered it is clear their existence was supported and reinforced by
ideas closely aligned with nature, underpinned by the ideas of the dreamtime, a
period considered outside of time when creation was thought to have occurred.
In this respect reverence is demonstrated to be shown in practices that point
to a type of communal existence co-dependent with nature together with what was
regarded as sacred land. To reiterate the dreamtime
posited a first Creator appeared in the physical world to bring forth
natural children and plants under the control of a MOTHER EARTH, from thence
came animals but lastly humankind.
Dreamtime
stories were instrumental in defining their tribal values which led to an
elaborate system of ethical rules under the common law, such as initiation into
adulthood. To reiterate this law covered ritualistic ceremonies such as
the processes for corroborees when the tribes met to resolve matters such as
arranged marriages, to plan for trade between the nations, to celebrate and so
forth.
Whilst
there is no evidence of full scale war between nations, there is evidence of
severe skirmishes between them and a high level of violence as scores were
settled brutally by means of “payback”. Penalties were quite severe and death
prescribed for unauthorized entry into sacred sites.
But what
was remarkable was their existence for such a long period without denuding the
landscape, although changes due to the operation of fire stick
farming may have led to the extinction of some species. Like
many other rich culture there are aspects of Aboriginal values which tend to
suggest pluralism, self-determination, community, family, relationships, and
achieving balance within all the domains of human life.
Possibly the idea of moral values arose from the concept of fairness.
To
reiterate I think it is fair to say our earliest codes of accepted behaviors in
Aborigines appears to be based on putting sharing ahead of individualism, so
that loyalty to the group underwrote enhanced chances of survival.
Concurrent
on the other side of the globe the success of the human species adapting to the
enhanced dynamics of the group has been extraordinary but many would argue to
excess. One could argue in the process the table has turned to become consumers
and not sharers in nature’s bounty.
Possibly
the early roots for this twist in the evolutionary road from sharers to
consumers may be linked to the idea we have dominion or
superiority over nature, which is to be tamed and brought under human
control. Such a view, combined with our extraordinary inventive
improvements and adaptions in modernity has prospered humanity, but often
this is at the expense of all of the other species. This in turn has the
capacity to change our ideas on what are our underlying ethical values; to
engender the need for a revision in our thinking to return to the way we viewed
the lands when once we were more reliant to respond to the changing seasons for
our survival.
Conclusion
I think there are grounds to believe there are
many ingredients in a universal type of morality entwined in nature,
brutal as it may seem, although of course this cannot be proven and is by no
means easily discernible. What I have attempted to do in this paper is to
illustrate the important ingredient of social cohesion as form of evolutionary
ethics that played a pivotal role in in our own early evolutionary journey.
