An Introduction to the philosophy of George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

These notes are intended as a brief outline of Hegel's philosophical works. My aim is to provide sufficient material to support fruitful discussions.

I found Spark Notes provided a helpful reference and I have in turn attached a more comprehensive analysis for those interested in further reading.

Both reference sources are provided after the conclusion.  

I have also provided extracts from the November 2020 published article in ‘Philosophy Now’ entitled ‘Hegel and History’ by Jack Fox – Williams.  

The approach taken, given the large volume of works, is to split this summary into an explanation of his major themes and then to talk briefly about his Phenomenology of Spirit.

I conclude with the article on history which I hope will provide further food for thought. This approach involves quite a bit of overlap and possibly some minor repetition but I feel it allows one to ease into the subject matter which Hegel often presented in an obscure manner, to more thoroughly support discussions.

The Form of my summary is as follows:     

Introduction 

A brief sketch of his life, the context at that time in history and a summary of major publications.

An introduction to his major themes –

His idea of the Dialectic and what it means.

His Philosophical idea of spirit and self-awareness in the community.  

Lordship.

Ethics as they relate to the expression of that Age and the philosophy of Right.   

From the Phenomenology of Spirit.

Human consciousness.  

Knowledge.  

Hegel and the Philosophy of History

Hegel and History’ by Jack Fox – Williams.  

Conclusion indicating possible discussion points.  

Introduction

Hegel was a very important philosopher of the18th century, whose influence covered not only philosophy, but the fields of theology, logic, history and politics. He belongs in the German idealist’s camp and much of his work continued in the manner of Immanuel Kant except for important distinctions that I will cover in more detail later.

Following on from this summary there will be ample opportunities to debate these issues and talk about how history evolves and influences our thinking in general. 

A brief sketch of his life and major works. 

At that time the aristocracy was clinging to their privileges and suppressed criticism, as concern heightened after the French Revolution began in 1789. That led of course to the end of aristocratic institutions and the execution of many aristocrats, including the French monarch which would have had a profound impact on the worldview of Hegel. That raised issues which would be debated by Hegel and his contemporaries at the time.

Hegel was born in 1770 in Stuttgart, Wurttemberg, which became a German state in 1871. He became a student of philosophy and theology with fellow student’s outstanding figures of that time such as the poet Friedrich Hölderlin (1770–1843) and Friedrich von Schelling (1775–1854).

Much of his earlier writing entailed him attempting to grasp the historical legacy of Christianity and its cultural and social implications, as an orthodox Lutheran. Hegel inherited a modest bequest from his Father after he died which allowed him to pursue his academic career.

In 1801 Hegel moved to Jena and joined Schelling, to publish ‘The Difference between Fichte’s and Schelling’s System of Philosophy’ to collaborate with Schelling to produce ‘The Critical Journal of Philosophy”  

In 1807 he published his first major work, the Phenomenology of Spirit.

Later, as Jena became occupied by Napoleon’s troops, Hegel’s activities were curtailed so he worked as a successful editor of a newspaper in Bamberg. From 1808–1815 he became the headmaster and philosophy teacher at a high school in Nuremberg. Subsequently he married and began a family, publishing in 1816 the ‘Science of Logic’.  

After several years he returned to university life and finally took up an appointment at the prestigious University of Berlin. There he published his political philosophy, Elements of the Philosophy of Right.

Following his death in 1831 Hegel’s lectures on philosophy, history, religion and aesthetics were published.

Theme – An Introduction to his idea of his Dialectic and what it means.

Hegel introduces the idea of the dialectic but in a different way to the philosophers that came before him.  

To more clearly understand what the dialectic means for Hegel, we have to first understand that Hegel was an idealist, in the tradition of his predecessor, Kant.

Like Kant, Hegel believed that we all perceive the world and anything in it in our minds eye so to speak – not directly. That is our minds gain access to the ideas of the world—made up of images, perceptions, concepts. Both for Kant and Hegel, the only reality we can know therefore is a virtual reality. But the difference for Hegel was important in two ways. Hegel maintained our world view was a consequence of social interaction. In other words all of our ideas are shaped by the ideas of others. Hence our minds become influenced by the thoughts of other people through language, traditions, societal and cultural influences. To Hagel that interaction was real which prompted earlier philosophers to think of him as a rationalist philosopher. Later scholars however would regard him as an absolute idealist.

Theme - His Philosophical idea of spirit and self-awareness in the community. 

This then is the collective consciousness to which Hegel referred to as the Spirit. In short Hegel’s idealism is realised through a dialectical process involving social interaction. 

Hence, the second difference to Kant is Hegel sees our collective ideas as evolving in a similar way as they do in an argument. First, we have the thesis, as an idea or proposition about the world and how we relate to it. Of course every thesis, or idea about the world contains an inherent contradiction or flaw, which then will give way to an antithesis, a proposition that contradicts the thesis. Finally, the thesis and antithesis are reconciled into a synthesis, which then becomes the new idea combining elements of both as or when the conflict is finally resolved. 

Hegel sees human societies evolving in the same manner as arguments might evolve. An entire society or culture begins with one idea about the world, which naturally evolves into a succession of different ideas through a dialectical pattern over time. Hegel uses the German word Geist in his work which is translated as “spirit” in English versions that can mean both “spirit” and “mind,” depending on the context. Hegel talks generally about the spirit of the age, which one would conclude uses the term in a religious sense, which however he never fully defines.

It must be noted at that time religion and philosophy were not separated as they are now and Hegel devoted a considerable narrative on the subject as distinct to his philosophy. For those interested the spark notes reference here expand on the topic. But from consensus views I think one can reliably conclude he was talking about a collective consciousness (that he refers to often and is explained in his dialectic) as a kind of divine spirit. That spirit eventually ensures a resultant logical synthesis ending after many inevitable conflicts.  It must be noted Hegel’s dialectic is talking about as an ongoing process. Although the ultimate Synthesis resolves the ‘pro’s and con’s’ the process continues throughout history to slowly become more refined according to his Logic.    

Theme - Ethical Life as the Expression of an Age

Hegel’s philosophy can be thus summed up as an expression of an Age, representing the given cultural expression of the Spirit of that age. Spirit is the collective communal entity that transcends individuals, but determines their beliefs and actions regardless of whether they are individually aware of it or not.

Philosophy of the Right 

But Hegel did recognise in the age of enlightenment that it gave rise to economic individualism who must have individual rights. Later on in his writings in the Philosophy of Right, he explains the state as a modern institution will self-correct as individualism increasingly plays a more positive evolved role. 

Hegel proposes such institutions must affirm the communal societal spiritual bond, but at the same time to also preserve individual freedom.

He went on to propose a regulatory regime for the state and institutional ties that might be regarded as similar in nature to unions for those private activities that lay outside their state. 

From the Phemenology of the Spirit- evolving human consciousness. 

Given the prior thematic notes on the Dialectic and what it means in the communal spirit of Age through social interaction we can now turn to Hegel’s explanation about how this sophistication arose.     

Hegel asserts human consciousness naturally evolved to become more sophisticated in the way it relates to the world, over and above sensory inputs of objects. Hence, an understanding is reached as to our relationship with other individuals, as part of the whole, to be bound in turn by a single communal consciousness. 

Spirit in this philosophical sense, then represents the community. In other words the amalgam of individuals who form part of the whole, but whose values and actions continue to evolve in line with the consciousness of the evolving spirit of that age. The apparent glue that holds this all together has previously been covered under the prior thematic where Hegel uses the German word ‘Geist’ in his work which is translated as “spirit” in English as in the spirit of the age.

From the Phenomenology of the Spirit- Knowledge   

Hegel is mostly in sync with Kant in that attributes knowledge is not knowledge of “things-in-themselves,” or of the inputs from the senses. He was in agreement with the rationalists such as Descartes who said we are only able to trust the truths of the mind's comprehension on its own. This differed to the Empiricists, who argued that all knowledge arises from perceptions of actual objects, through our senses.

Hegel talks about different modes of consciousness involving meaning, perception and understanding which supplies the evidence of the world in which we inhabit. 

Hegel believed all of the different categories were real as uncertainty gives rise to new perceptions that then become certainties.

To reiterate, individuals are immersed in the world and are constantly mediating between the subjective and the collective moments of understanding. .

Lordship and Bondage as the Basis of Social Relations

Hegel agreed with the idealism of Kant, but takes the matter a step forward to suggest self-consciousness is as a consequence of the interactions through the eyes of another in society. Hence, this self-consciousness involves a social interaction and identification with another’s consciousness. 

Where inequality exists in relation to a subordinate partner or in the case of a bondsman, the Lord is conscious of the others lesser position. The Lord enjoys his status as in his freedom over his subordinate other, who remains unessential to him. However, in doing so, the lord may become uneasy or feel guilty in negating a consciousness with which he has identified in order to assure himself of his independence and free status. Hegel contends all life is founded on this social interaction. In other words there are dynamic and competing moments of mutual identification where one identifies or distances oneself from the other.  It was within this master slave narrative that Carl Marx drew his inspiration to formulate his manifesto.

The question arises however that a collective consciousness at some point in time may relish in the idea of what later is regarded as evil- as in slavery. Hegel gave considerable attention to the idea of slavery which is outside the scope of this paper.

However, one might want to question his model of self-consciousness.

Hegel and the Philosophy of History

Hegel’s philosophy of history is perhaps the most fully developed philosophical theory of history that attempts to discover meaning or direction in history (1824a, 1824b, 1857). Hegel regards history as an intelligible process moving towards a specific condition—the realization of human freedom. “The question at issue is therefore the ultimate end of mankind, the end which the spirit sets itself in the world” (1857: 63). Hegel incorporates a deeper historicism into his philosophical theories than his predecessors or successors. He regards the relationship between “objective” history and the subjective development of the individual consciousness (“spirit”) as an intimate one; this is a central thesis in his Phenomenology of  Spirit -1807.    

Little, Daniel, "Philosophy of History", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/history/>.

 

In summary, Hegel, in line with modern philosophers, suggests one questions the meaning of history and talks about early primitive versions to become more reflective and untimely to ideally be governed by reason.

Hegel and History’ by Jack Fox – Williams.  

In this respect Jack fox Williams article ' Hegel's understanding of History' which appeared in the November 2020 edition of ‘Philosophy Now’ sheds some further light on the matter. 

Hegel’s third way of doing history, philosophical history, prioritises thought above event-commentary, synthesising philosophical concepts and ideas with historical information. Hegel himself is doing this kind of activity when he famously argues that the process of human history is a process of self-recognition guided by ‘the principle of reason’.

For Hegel, nature is the embodiment of reason. In the same way that nature strives towards increasing complexity and harmony, so does the world spirit through the historical process. The Pre-Socratic philosopher Anaxagoras (c.500-428 BC) was the first person to argue that nous (meaning reason, or maybe understanding in general) ultimately governs the world – not as an intelligence, but like a fundamental essence of being. Hegel stresses the importance of this distinction, using the solar system as an example. He writes:

“The motion of the solar system proceeds according to immutable laws; these laws are its reason. But neither the sun nor the planets which according to these laws rotate around it, have any consciousness of it. Thus, the thought that there is reason in nature, that nature is ruled by universal, unchangeable laws, does not surprise us; we are used to it and make very little of it…” (Reason in History).

Moreover, Hegel argues that evidence of reason is revealed through religious truth, which demonstrates that the world is governed not by chance but by Providence. During profound moments of spiritual epiphany, we come to the realisation that a divine order presides over the world. Providence is wisdom endowed with an infinite power, which realises its own purpose, that is, the absolute, rational, final purpose of the world; reason is “thought determining itself in absolute freedom.” Hegel suggests that many stages of human history appear irrational and regressive because society is made up of individuals guided by passions, impulses and external forces. However, behind the seeming irregularity of human history lies a divine plan that is hidden from view and yet actualises itself through the historical process. As a result of the many conflicts, revolutions and revolts that society endures, humanity attains a greater glimpse of reason.

Hegel goes even further in the development of his argument and suggests that the realisation of reason in history also serves as a justification for belief in God. He acknowledges that history reveals the cruelty and sadism of human nature, but urges “recognition of the positive elements in which the negative element disappears as something subordinate and vanquished.” Through the consciousness of reason, we recognise that the ultimate purpose of the world is incrementally actualised through those occasional historical events which bring about positive transformation and change. In this sense, Hegel presents a highly progressive view of history, perceiving the development of human society as a dynamic process by which our rational faculties become ever more refined and cultivated. Although, there is evil in the world, reason ultimately triumphs.

Finally he sums up Hegel’s rather optimistic conclusion. 

The Greeks were aware of freedom, and rejected tyranny for democracy, which is political freedom for the voting set. Their freedom was maintained under conditions of slavery – a fact that made “liberty on the one hand only an accidental, transient and limited growth; on the other hand, it constituted a rigorous thraldom of our common nature of the Human.” So according to Hegel, the German nations, under the influence of Christianity, were the first to come to the realisation that man possesses free will. And even while slavery still occurred under Christianity and subsequent political systems, the notion of individual freedom has become central to states, governments, and constitutions, first in the West, then elsewhere.

Conclusion

What can we say about Hegel’s dialectic as it applies to modernity? Did it help in providing the synthesis for European nations to adopt a liberal democratic system in the European style, which has avoided war, after the atrocities of successive world wars?

What do we think about Hegel’s idea of world spirit?  What do we think of the idea that reason always ultimately triumphs? What do we think of his model and so on?    

Has Hegel contributed to a more rational view to peaceful governance?  

References

https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/hegel/

https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7d5nb4r8&chunk.id=d0e27&toc.depth=1&toc.id=&brand=ucpress

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hegel/

Hegel’s Dialectics

 

 

Barwon Heads

We travelled down to Barwon Heads on Monday and stayed overnight to enjoy an engaging and wonderful luncheon with former work mates and spouses. The weather was sunny and lots of people enjoyed the beach. The final photo shows a side view of where we had lunch.  

Barwon Heads is a delightful coastal township on the Bellarine Peninsula, close to Geelong, and less than 2 hours’ drive from where we live. It is located on the west bank of the mouth of the Barwon River below Lake Connewarre, while it is bounded to the west by farmland, golf courses and the ephemeral saline wetland Murtnaghurt Lagoon. 

In his masters steps – Reverence for life

Introduction 

Schweitzer’s world view was influenced by Spinoza, Hinduism, Buddhism, and the Native American religions and aimed at providing a bridge for Christianity to be revitalized; to return to the ancient mystical links for a naturalistic worldview. His ideas embrace life (life affirmation as he calls it) to share with all living things in the world in which we live. His ideas came from his concern about civilization which he thought had lost its spiritual roots because of our lack of reverence for life as in the post enlightenment worldview which had become too reliant on reason. His philosophy was not a utopian ideal nor could it be quantifiable, as was the case for Nietzsche in terms of given values, outcomes, behaviours or morality.

Rather he encouraged a way of thinking which would return us to our spiritual roots, a way of being to share in the communal ancestry of all living things which he referred to as ethical mysticism. His thinking is much more deep seated than a casual observation might first conclude. It requires crucial self-examination, to ensure the values we hold show reverence for all living things, in respect to how we might lead more purposeful lives.  His first major work was the ‘Quest for the Historical Jesus.

 

The Quest for the Historical Jesus’ -

 

“The mistake was to suppose that Jesus could come to mean more to our time by entering into it as a man like ourselves. That is not possible. First because such a Jesus never existed. Secondly because, although historical knowledge can no doubt introduce a greater clearness into an existing spiritual life, it cannot call spiritual life into existence.”

History can destroy the present; it can reconcile the present with the past; to a certain extent there was a danger that we should offer them a Jesus who was too small, because we had forced Him into conformity with our human standards and human psychology. To see that, one need only read the Lives of Jesus written since the 'sixties, and notice what they have made of the great imperious sayings of the Lord, how they have weakened down His imperative world-contemning demands upon individuals, that He might not come into conflict with our ethical ideals, and might tune His denial of the world to our acceptance of it.

Many of the greatest sayings are found lying in a corner like explosive shells from which the charges have been removed. No small portion of elemental religious power needed to be drawn off from His sayings to prevent them from conflicting with our system of religious world-acceptance. We have made Jesus hold another language with our time from that which He really held.

Schweitzer asserted that the historical Jesus stands as a concrete historical personality, but remains a stranger to our time, but His spirit, which lies hidden in His words, is known in simplicity, and its influence is direct. Every saying contains in its own way the whole Jesus.

The very strangeness and hsi non- non-judgmental way of thinking makes it easier for individuals to find their own personal standpoint in regard to Him.

Modern Lives of Jesus are too general in their scope. They aim at influencing, by giving a complete impression of the life of Jesus, a whole community. But the historical Jesus, as He is depicted in the Gospels, influenced individuals by the individual word. They understood Him so far as it was necessary for them to understand, without forming any conception of His life as a whole, since this in its ultimate aims remained a mystery even for the disciples.”  

After he had obtained Doctorates in philosophy and theology felt the call to be a jungle Doctor. It was during his time in Africa that he abandoned his incomplete work on the Mysticism of St Paul to return to the Philosophy of Civilization in an attempt to provide a philosophy which would guard against the terrors of war which he witnessed first- hand.

 

In his work on ‘The Mysticism of Paul Schweitzer’ argues Paul's worldview was based upon eschatology (the expectation of the imminent end of time). Jesus was to reappear to establish the prophesized new Kingdom.  

Believers literally were to become a member of the body of Christ by the mystical death and resurrection inherent in baptism.  His doctrine of being-in-Christ was meant to be taken literally, to work regardless of whether the newly baptized believer comprehended or not the process or intention.

Schweitzer demonstrated Paul's ideas were all based on a Jewish/Christian eschatology.

 

Schweitzer in Africa

In 1913 as a qualified Doctor he departed for Lambarene with his wife (whom he had married the previous year) and who was to be of incalculable support in the Hospital and as a research assistant over the next 40 years. His base remained at Lambarene for the remainder of his life except for internment during World War 1.

However it was the outbreak of hostilities in 1914 that triggered within him the change of heart to abandon his nearly completed work for publication on the Mysticism of St Paul and return to the Philosophy of Civilization. His writings in this book contain his famous Insight” on the "Reverence for Life” principle.

His achievements were recognized in 1952 when he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize and later he formed collaborations with the leaders at that time including Bertrand Russell and John F Kennedy.

In 1958 he made calls on radio Oslo for the abandonment of nuclear tests and the production of atomic bombs.

He passed away in 1965 but his spirit continues today in enduring ethical thought and work.

His philosophy – Reverence for life explained in more detail

It is difficult to describe what is meant in a few sentences but his theory acknowledges the reality of our own conscious will to live and all that is around us. Reverence for Life is the end result of a fusing of ethical principles within our conscious will to live and hence world and life affirmation. It is the spiritual act in which one ceases to live unreflectively but adopts a reverence for all life in order to raise its true value. Its aim is to create values, and to realize progress of different kinds, which shall serve the material, spiritual and ethical development of mankind.

At first glance one might regard these ideas as somewhat vague but on further analysis they represent much more deep thinking than appears at the outset and his philosophy becomes very interesting. I will attempt to expand what I think he meant in a little more detail.

Firstly Schweitzer was a believer in rational thought and as a Scientist his philosophy followed a rationale that sought to find a way through the fog of the present day decay of civilization as he saw it evidenced in the ultimate horror of War. Schweitzer abhorred philosophical abstract thinking and believed in the reality of life and the will to live that enveloped all life. I am life he said ‘in the midst of all life that wills to live’.

In that respect as I mentioned in my introduction he shared similar views with Nietzsche and Arthur Schopenhauer insofar as either adopted a will to live or will to power in recognition of our natural biological reality.

But there is where it ended for Schweitzer who contended that such a will to live in itself cannot be confused by attempting to obscure its reality with abstract values that nullify our existence or conclude that the only way forward is withdrawal from the world we live in. Hence he wanted to introduce ethics into philosophy but not of the kind that attempts to define them in the sense they become simplistic rules or represent enslavement to someone else’s abstract values. Similarly Schweitzer resisted any attempt to grade life based upon whether or not that life might have feelings which in turn would determine our ethical stance towards it but rather his ethics were based upon mysticism; a seeming contradiction in itself. Schweitzer contended the values of compassion and empathy for all living things will become self-evident when we adopt a reflective reverence for all life which in essence is a spiritual dimension based upon a practical life affirmation.

Reverence for life harnesses our emotive compassion for all living things that will to live as we will to live in our ongoing relationship in the world which will be manifested instinctively in our service to humanity.

Hence reverence for life includes a reverence for our own lives and Schweitzer was not against self defense and common sense dictating some form of killing but only as was necessary for survival.
Rather what he wanted us to avoid is the ethics of expediency.

Schweitzer’s philosophy concluded that the failure of civilization was due to the failure to show reverence to all life (not just human life) which has led to the decline of civilization and the decimation of our spirituality. In that sense his philosophy has some affinity with Buddhism concerned for all sentient beings but he also contended it made no sense for one to conclude the only sensible thing is to withdraw from the world, since his philosophy is life affirming.

Hence his insight to show reverence to all life involves a change in thinking to embrace the ethic of love in life to live our life to the fullest in the service of life within its midst and to alleviate suffering in the most practical ways possible in accord with our natural spiritual dimension or instinct in harmony with nature.

Selected Quotations and extracts

Schweitzer was also influenced by Goethe who he admired and completed 4 studies into his work.

Here is an extract …..Goethe is well aware that in all the thoughts of guilt and guilt-consciousness with which we are occupied we are touching upon a great secret which we cannot comprehend and cannot fathom. He surmises, however, that the power which guilt seems to have over us is not appointed to destroy us, but in the end must contribute to our purification. ... When guilt begins to operate in a man he is on the way to salvation through the unfathomable secret of love, which penetrates into the darkness of earth like a beam of eternal light."

On Life

Anyone who proposes to do well must not expect people to roll stones out of his way, but must accept his lot calmly if they roll a few more upon it.

The most valuable knowledge we can have is how to deal with disappointments.

Religion & Philosophy

Any religion or philosophy which is not based upon a respect for life is not a true religion or philosophy.

It is good to maintain life and further life, it is bad to destroy life. And this ethic, profound, universal has the significance of a religion. It is religion.

When we observe contemporary society one thing strikes us. We debate but make no progress. Why? Because as people we do not trust one another.

Because I have confidence in the power of truth and of the spirit, I believe in the future of mankind.

Nature and the Environment

Never say there is nothing beautiful in the world any more. There is always something to make you wonder in the shape of a tree, the trembling of a leaf.

The deeper we look into nature the more profoundly we know that it is sacred and we are united to this life.

The effect of his writings on religious and secular communities.

His quest for truth and the spirit of “liberty” as he put it at times led him to conclusions on biblical interpretation at variance to accepted orthodoxy. Indeed they cost him some considerable hardship with the Parisian Missionary Society for his strict instructions as a Jungle Doctor was to refrain from any form of religious discourse with the locals for fear he might introduce them to some doctrinal errors.

However at the insistence of the missionaries at Lambarene the Parisian Missionary Society relented on their embargo as the realization slowly sunk in that his views in no way contradicted the simple gospel of salvation understandable by the local inhabitants.

His attitude to African culture was not to try and change their way of life to ours but to serve their physical and spiritual needs. His approach was the forerunner to to-days generally accepted missionary objectives seeking to include cultural aspects and tradition within worship and Christian life practices.

His life as a devout Christian had a profound effect on the Christian community at large as although the shadow of sacrifice hung over his life he was able to “find his life.”Whosoever loses his life for my sake shall find it”.

When he left for Africa he was prepared to make 3 sacrifices.

1. To lose his financial independence and become reliant for the rest of his life on donations from friends.

2. Discontinue his career as Concert artist.

3. Renounce academic teaching and lecturing activities.

However, to his great joy found himself in the same position.The Paris Bach Society donated a piano with organ pedals specially adapted to the tropics.

He was able to return (between long intervals in Africa) to Europe as an esteemed professional as his performances continued to grow in popularity.

He was only totally reliant on the financial help of others for a short period as his publications and acclaimed recitals soon made him financially independent.He was also highly acclaimed and sought after as a Lecturer in Europe and in the leading universities in the USA.

Effect on Society.

Schweitzer was clearly ahead of his time in calling for the human treatment of animals in medical experiments and in food production and today many such organizations continue to quote selectively from many of his publications.

His reverence for life principle continues under the Albert Schweitzer Foundation supporting ethically based aid and educational projects.His work is of appeal to any group that has a common interest in the general wellbeing of peoples around the world. However in the earlier post 2nd World War period his thoughts were of great appeal to a society ravaged by war and mindful of the need to establish a new “world order” to prevent a recurrence of past atrocities. Invitations flowed to him to give lectures abroad from world-renowned academic, ecclesiastical and musical bodies.
His view was eagerly sought after and at times he must have felt some satisfaction as it is recorded “He dashed off a letter to John F Kennedy congratulating him on his recent peace initiatives”.

Legacy

His enduring legacy of thought contained within his writings on “Reverence for Life” provides a “Bridge over troubled waters” for to-days contemporary society.

Its enduring interest is in the bridge his philosophy creates between Christian orthodoxy and a naturalistic world view which contends plants, animals, and humans all interact in complex chains of interdependency, thus we are all united with nature and dependent upon it for our existence.

He was a philosopher that both acknowledged that competition and killing were essential elements to the survival of the food chain but perhaps of far greater importance was the cooperation and tolerance which have evolved in the shared struggle of survival. The ethical consideration as to ultimate sustainability can have no better focus than that aligned to the "Reverence for Life" principle. It blends in with concerns over “Mother Earth” and her ultimate sustainability in the face of depletion, waste and pollution attributable to mankind.

The missing link is the principle that establishes our conscious “will to live” that affirms our relationship with the world but requires us to create values that in turn generate outcomes sustainable to all life. In essence Schweitzer was ahead of his times and one of the first modern day philosophers to introduce to us a life affirming bio centered ethics.

The ethical basis contained within the "reverence for Life” principle is then the essence of the way forwards as the global village becomes more and more interwoven. This is essential if globalization is to become civilized and deliver benefits in a uniform manner to all mankind.

Loyalty

Introduction 

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), the American writer, philosopher and poet stated loyalty is what you have on your "must have" list as a reference point as to character. No doubt he makes a valid point since it rates highly in what one expects in any relationship in line with such traits as kindness, empathy and strength. Yet it's not usually mentioned as a desirable attribute as we are more likely to reference such attributes as caring, kindness or appreciation and so forth, despite the fact someone being unjustifiably disloyal is highly injurious to any future relationship. Inevitably in the aftermath of what's left is a feeling of unreliability or uneasiness to fracture future trust.   

 

Surprisingly, also in philosophy, loyalty is a subject which is often overlooked, possibly due to the difficulty in determining principles such as whether or not it might be considered a virtue or otherwise.

 

Momentous events throughout history occur when loyalty to the customs and culture are suddenly jettisoned in favour of a new beginning.  One can recall the more recent hideous events such as the Cultural Revolution in China.

 

What has also been missing is the support provisions to individuals desirous of removing unethical practices but lacking the power or influence who then become whistle-blowers.   

 

Definition

 

For the purposes of this paper I will define it as the expression of an affinity or allegiance one feels as a devotion or dedication on a personal level.  Modern day ideas about loyalty have been expanded to include the affinity towards Institutions, group(s) or indeed to a philosophy or brands.

Examples of Loyalty is the devotion to family, the affinity to an employer, to centres of influence or service organisations and so on. Loyalty will always be contingent in the perception it has an intrinsic value of one kind or another, in compensation or in a feeling of satisfaction in terms of existential meaning.    

 

But already one gets the sense as to how loyalties can quickly change when relationships are placed under severe pressure. Then there can be the blind type of loyalty that wants to cover up wrongdoing. In such a culture where there is intransigence towards weeding out unethical practices at the leadership level, there is the loneliness of the whistle-blowers, who can be subjected to persecution, intimidation or retaliation of one kind or another.

 

This discussion paper will talk about the interaction of Loyalty in our culture and the role of the Whistle-blower   

 

The philosophy of Josiah Royce – Loyalty as a virtue

 

Josiah Royce contends loyalty relates to all of the virtues. He asserts that loyalty is linked to all of our causes as a determinant of subsequent choices. Therein we have a duty to our conscience to remain loyal to the

defining existential commitments.

 

Where differences in commitments arise these are to be delineated according to the loyalty principles that hold true to the morally justifiable outcomes. In this respect Biblical references talk about the impossibility of being loyal to two masters. Religious loyalty for Royce is tied to atonement as the saving grace which underpins all meaning. Loyalty is expressed in the normative, duty and consequential ethics in relationships with others to define the choices we make. 

But his idea that our will is totally defined by its loyalties would be challenged by the postmodern philosophers. In fact the will which was a term used to define our consciousness is seen as a floating amalgam of ideas that are influenced but not controlled by past loyalties. A loyalty then would dissipate if the idea of holding such allegiances no longer was perceived as having any intrinsic value. 

 

Changing Cultural loyalty

Cultural loyalty is embedded in societies but can be disrupted by conflict from within and external forces seizing power. More often than not the conquering empire will seek to substitute its own culture. But the more successful will only demand loyalty to the authorities in exchange for a freedom of retention of their culture unless it impinges on their power.   

 

One of the more notable horrendous changes in loyalty was the Great Patriotic Revolution in China of 1966. Mao inspired the Youthful Red Guards to rally against all of the ancient traditions: to tear down old customs, manners or anything connected to old culture. Hence the Cultural Revolution turned against Buddhist monasteries, Taoist Temples, Muslim mosques and Christian churches which were destroyed.

 

Those patriots persisting with the old ways were persecuted, condemned to forced labour, imprisonments and so forth up until Mao’s death in 1976. The attitude to religion subsequently softened but this uneasy truce has been fractured once again under the present regime to give rise to the so called re training camps.  

 

In the modern era China has largely been secularised, spurred on by modern industrialisation and urbanisation inherent in the moves to embrace a market driven economy under the mantle of a communist state. But for the people there remains the remnants of Confucianism and other religions represented in the sense of loyalty to the family, the cosmic unity of Taoism and personal conscience of the individual. Many of the customs and manifestations of old folk style religious practices persist, unable to be squashed by many decades of communist rule. This indicates the strength of resolve that can persist where strongly held loyalties are capable of surviving in a hostile environment.  

 

Changing cultural influences to loyalty in terms of long service.

 

Turning to the west under a democratic system we nevertheless are embracing a change is our attitude to loyalty in the workforce. In the past long periods of service was a cause for celebration but staying too long with one employer today is generally regarded as a weakness. The idea of a company paying for such a celebration with a generous gift is largely related to a past era.  

The question then arises: does loyalty still make good business sense as an essential ingredient to a meaningful existence?

 

Decades ago we are all familiar with many working to retire and receiving typically a gold watch. But for this generation those ideas have all but disappeared and time will become the arbiter as to what benefits, if any, are forgone in the growing trend for there to be an absence of long service loyalty. Notwithstanding, the current rejection of loyalty as a value in the modern sense is already making a modest comeback as its benefits are gradually becoming identified. 

Perhaps their generation will rediscover it as if it never existed before and hail it as a new revelation. 

 

Consumer Loyalty and Capitalism

Value of Loyalty to customers in business

Loyalty to existing customers used to be the hallmark for good management as the cost of acquisition takes a number of years to be recovered. Today new customers more often than not are offered much better deals than existing long term customers which causes angst amongst consumers and damages the previous brand of the particular product or service. The resultant churn of business creates excessive costs and a fall in productivity that ultimately disadvantages not only consumers but investors in entities that embrace disloyalties to long serving customers. 

 

Cheating and unethical behaviours in a high pressure cultural environment  

 

When we consider aspects of human behaviours involving corruption or cheating psychologists have found healthy competition actually reduces its incidence except in very extreme cases. But where the pressure is intense such as the imposition to achieve targets that are totally unrealistic the conditions are likely to act as a catalyst to fracture loyalty and ignore ethical standards.   

 

Systemic Failures and a false sense of loyalty

 

Then there is the extent to which loyalty to ideals of good governance breaks down when a fear arises that the previous goodwill will be dissipated if the truth is revealed of systemic failures. 

 

Examples abound such as where scandals and wrongdoing is covered up protect the previous good name of the institution. Therein the role of the whistle blower assumes critical importance where previous avenues for remedy are not acted upon. This then is exemplified in a bad culture and errant leadership. 

 

Loyalty then is a feature of formative normative, duty and consequential ethics as it defines our relationships with others and ideals that determine the choices we make. Where this breaks down at the top of an organisation it can quickly permeate the ranks and the only escape can be by way of the whistle-blower.   

 

Brand loyalty  

 

The indirect relationships to services or products provided in any economy invoke a loyalty or otherwise associated with recognisable brands.

Loyalty to an institution providing generic goods or services can become sullied if false claims are subsequently proven against it. On a personal level one might say there is a propensity to remain loyal until such time as there is good reason not to be loyal. The importance of loyalty in modernity is critical as rapid changes in technology and obsolescence challenge the allegiance to well established brands of products and services. 

 

Employee Loyalty  

 

A feature of modern day capitalism involving some large or multinational firms become involved in massive layoffs where small towns and even cities can be devastated by the sudden loss of employment. Whilst some reduction in the workforce is inevitable, during downturns, the reactions often are swift and arbitrary which breeds disloyalties.

The questionable nature of these redundancies prompts one to ask how firms can continue to function efficiently in the absence of the skills and knowledge of long serving employees suddenly made redundant. 

The answer is they can’t and the response is often that the same work undertaken by the so called redundant worker becomes assigned to corresponding sub-contractors and consultancy arrangements, particularly in the government sector following continual restructuring.

Genuine reductions in labour as a consequence of productivity are a different matter entirely but their incidence has shrunk dramatically both here and abroad. This is as a consequence of the degradation in terms of loyalty extended to employment and reciprocated by those employed who fail to embrace productivity.  

Yet economists continue to scratch their heads as to why productivity is falling in the midst of a technology boom predicated on the reverse in terms of more efficient outcomes. Much of the massive rework that relates to the technology industry relates to the continual churn of employees and redundancies where technical skills and human capital is eroded.    

 

The Whistle-blower

Despite recent discussions outlining the importance of whistleblowing, many employees continue to be subject to retaliation after revealing wrongdoings. Once exposed the penalties imposed and loss of respect may damage many organisations whose investors bear the brunt of subsequent poor returns.

 

In Whistling While They Work 2 the Australian Research Council and 23 partners, and led by Griffith University's Centre for Governance and Public Policy, the three-year project surveyed 700 organisations and more than 17,000 employees, managers and governance professionals. The report comes at a time when new laws and protections are being introduced. It confirms there is still much to be done to improve how whistleblowing is managed.

“Despite the importance of whistleblowing in uncovering wrongdoing, we found continuing levels of poor outcomes for whistle-blowers and the prevalence of informal, collateral impacts such as stress and isolation,” says associate professor Eva Tsahuridu, an industry fellow at the School of Accounting RMIT University, and a researcher involved on the director side of the study. “More than 80 per cent of the reporters of wrongdoing experienced some form of informal repercussion, while almost half of them suffered some form of direct retaliation.”

Sylvia Falzon FAICD, chair of Cabrini Health, says the new laws can be viewed in two ways. “The improved protections can be seen as a regulatory stick to enhance whistle-blowers protections and looking to bolster corporate responsibility — or, for those boards with a strong culture and a supportive, open and honest environment at its core, the new law is an extension to what already exists... enabling and encouraging a culture of continuous improvement.”

Tsahuridu also warns directors that organisations can suffer from overconfidence. “This overconfidence may lead boards to mistakenly think they do not have anything to be concerned about or need to improve. Governance and oversight of whistleblowing is necessary in all organisations.”

Whistle while you work  

https://www.whistlingwhiletheywork.edu.au/

 

QUOTES TO CONSIDER

“I used to advertise my loyalty and I don’t believe there is a single person I loved that I didn’t eventually betray.” – Albert Camus, the fall

The scholar does not consider gold and jade to be precious treasures, but loyalty and good faith.

CONFUCIUS, the Wisdom of Confucius

“Hold faithfulness and sincerity as first principles.” – Confucius, the Analects

“Strength may win a kingdom, but loyalty holds it together.” – Elizabeth D. Marie, Seeking Giants

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), American writer, philosopher and poet:  

Loyalty is what you have on your "must have" list as a reference point to character.

I'll take 50% efficiency to get 100% loyalty. “Samuel Goldwyn (1882-1974), American film producer.

We have to recognize that there cannot be relationships unless there is commitment, unless there is loyalty, unless there is love, patience, persistence.

CORNEL WEST, Breaking Bread

 

Conclusion

Loyalty is the ingredient that underpins our culture and in the modern context involves indirect devotions or affinities to brands as well as institutions and personal relationships. That culture will be exposed to continuous pressures from internal and external sources so that safeguards to maintain ethical outcomes need to be included and strengthened by provisions to support whistle-blowers where this action is justified.

Loyalty needs to be justified by normative, duty and consequential ethics as it defines our relationships with others and ideals that determine the choices we make. 

Josiah Royce contends loyalty relates to all of the virtues. He asserts that loyalty is linked to all of our causes as a determinate of subsequent choices, whether they be small or large. Therein we have a duty to our conscience and to remain loyal to the commitments that provide a meaningful life. But one might also argue there is a need to question loyalties regularly. Over the centuries we have discarded loyalties as they have turned out to be based on false beliefs. In the postmodern world many would believe they are a continuing work in process as defined by our ongoing narrative and the moral compass we seek to follow. 
Modern day capitalism is undergoing a transformation towards improved governance which needs to continue to rediscover the benefits of establishing a committed workforce who can remain justifiably loyal.