An Introduction to the philosophy of George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
These notes are intended as a brief outline of Hegel's philosophical
works. My aim is to provide sufficient material to support fruitful
discussions.
I found Spark Notes provided a helpful reference and I have in turn
attached a more comprehensive analysis for those interested in further reading.
Both reference sources are provided after the conclusion.
I have also provided extracts from the November 2020 published article
in ‘Philosophy Now’ entitled ‘Hegel and History’ by Jack Fox – Williams.
The approach taken, given the large volume of works, is to split this
summary into an explanation of his major themes and then to talk briefly about
his Phenomenology of Spirit.
I conclude with the article on history which I hope will provide
further food for thought. This approach involves quite a bit of overlap and
possibly some minor repetition but I feel it allows one to ease into the
subject matter which Hegel often presented in an obscure manner, to more
thoroughly support discussions.
The Form of my summary is as follows:
Introduction
A brief sketch of his life, the context at that time in history and a
summary of major publications.
An introduction to his major themes –
His idea of the Dialectic and what it means.
His Philosophical idea of spirit and self-awareness in the community.
Lordship.
Ethics as they relate to the expression of that Age and the philosophy
of Right.
From the Phenomenology of Spirit.
Human consciousness.
Knowledge.
Hegel and the Philosophy of History
Hegel and History’ by Jack Fox – Williams.
Conclusion indicating possible discussion points.
Introduction
Hegel was a very important philosopher of the18th century, whose
influence covered not only philosophy, but the fields of theology, logic,
history and politics. He belongs in the German idealist’s camp and much of his
work continued in the manner of Immanuel Kant except for important distinctions
that I will cover in more detail later.
Following on from this summary there will be ample opportunities to
debate these issues and talk about how history evolves and influences our
thinking in general.
A brief sketch of his life and major works.
At that time the aristocracy was clinging to their privileges and
suppressed criticism, as concern heightened after the French Revolution began
in 1789. That led of course to the end of aristocratic institutions and the execution
of many aristocrats, including the French monarch which would have had a
profound impact on the worldview of Hegel. That raised issues which would be
debated by Hegel and his contemporaries at the time.
Hegel was born in 1770 in Stuttgart, Wurttemberg, which became a
German state in 1871. He became a student of philosophy and theology with
fellow student’s outstanding figures of that time such as the poet Friedrich
Hölderlin (1770–1843) and Friedrich von Schelling (1775–1854).
Much of his earlier writing entailed him attempting to grasp the
historical legacy of Christianity and its cultural and social implications, as
an orthodox Lutheran. Hegel inherited a modest bequest from his Father after he
died which allowed him to pursue his academic career.
In 1801 Hegel moved to Jena and joined Schelling, to publish ‘The
Difference between Fichte’s and Schelling’s System of Philosophy’ to
collaborate with Schelling to produce ‘The Critical Journal of Philosophy”
In 1807 he published his first major work, the Phenomenology of
Spirit.
Later, as Jena became occupied by Napoleon’s troops, Hegel’s
activities were curtailed so he worked as a successful editor of a newspaper in
Bamberg. From 1808–1815 he became the headmaster and philosophy teacher at a
high school in Nuremberg. Subsequently he married and began a family,
publishing in 1816 the ‘Science of Logic’.
After several years he returned to university life and finally took up
an appointment at the prestigious University of Berlin. There he published his
political philosophy, Elements of the Philosophy of Right.
Following his death in 1831 Hegel’s lectures on philosophy,
history, religion and aesthetics were published.
Theme – An Introduction to his idea of his Dialectic and what it
means.
Hegel introduces the idea of the dialectic but in a
different way to the philosophers that came before him.
To more clearly understand what the dialectic means for
Hegel, we have to first understand that Hegel was an idealist, in the tradition
of his predecessor, Kant.
Like Kant, Hegel believed that we all perceive the world
and anything in it in our minds eye so to speak – not directly. That is our
minds gain access to the ideas of the world—made up of images, perceptions,
concepts. Both for Kant and Hegel, the only reality we can know therefore is a
virtual reality. But the difference for Hegel was important in two ways. Hegel
maintained our world view was a consequence of social interaction. In other
words all of our ideas are shaped by the ideas of others. Hence our minds
become influenced by the thoughts of other people through language, traditions,
societal and cultural influences. To Hagel that interaction was real which
prompted earlier philosophers to think of him as a rationalist philosopher.
Later scholars however would regard him as an absolute idealist.
Theme - His Philosophical idea of spirit and self-awareness in the
community.
This then is the collective consciousness to which Hegel
referred to as the Spirit. In
short Hegel’s idealism is realised through a dialectical process involving
social interaction.
Hence, the second difference to Kant is Hegel sees our collective
ideas as evolving in a similar way as they do in an argument. First, we have
the thesis, as an idea or proposition about the world and how we relate to it.
Of course every thesis, or idea about the world contains an inherent
contradiction or flaw, which then will give way to an antithesis, a proposition
that contradicts the thesis. Finally, the thesis and antithesis are reconciled into
a synthesis, which then becomes the new idea combining elements of both as or
when the conflict is finally resolved.
Hegel sees human societies evolving in the same manner as arguments
might evolve. An entire society or culture begins with one idea about the
world, which naturally evolves into a succession of different ideas through a
dialectical pattern over time. Hegel uses the German word Geist in his work
which is translated as “spirit” in English versions
that can mean both “spirit” and “mind,” depending on the context. Hegel talks
generally about the spirit of the age, which one would conclude uses the term
in a religious sense, which however he never fully defines.
It must be noted at that time religion and philosophy were not separated as they are now and Hegel devoted a considerable narrative on the subject as distinct to his philosophy. For those interested the spark notes reference here expand on the topic. But from consensus views I think one can reliably conclude he was talking about a collective consciousness (that he refers to often and is explained in his dialectic) as a kind of divine spirit. That spirit eventually ensures a resultant logical synthesis ending after many inevitable conflicts. It must be noted Hegel’s dialectic is talking about as an ongoing process. Although the ultimate Synthesis resolves the ‘pro’s and con’s’ the process continues throughout history to slowly become more refined according to his Logic.
Theme - Ethical Life as the Expression of an Age
Hegel’s philosophy can be thus summed up as an
expression of an Age, representing the given cultural expression of the Spirit
of that age. Spirit is the collective communal entity that transcends
individuals, but determines their beliefs and actions regardless of whether
they are individually aware of it or not.
Philosophy of the Right
But Hegel did recognise in the age of enlightenment that
it gave rise to economic individualism who must have individual rights. Later
on in his writings in the Philosophy of Right, he explains the state as a
modern institution will self-correct as individualism increasingly plays a more
positive evolved role.
Hegel proposes such institutions must affirm the
communal societal spiritual bond, but at the same time to also preserve
individual freedom.
He went on to propose a regulatory regime for the state
and institutional ties that might be regarded as similar in nature to unions
for those private activities that lay outside their state.
From the Phemenology of the Spirit- evolving human
consciousness.
Given the prior thematic notes on the Dialectic and what it means in
the communal spirit of Age through social interaction we can now turn to
Hegel’s explanation about how this sophistication arose.
Hegel asserts human consciousness naturally evolved to
become more sophisticated in the way it relates to the world, over and above
sensory inputs of objects. Hence, an understanding is reached as to our
relationship with other individuals, as part of the whole, to be bound in turn
by a single communal consciousness.
Spirit in this philosophical sense, then represents the
community. In other words the amalgam of individuals who form part of the
whole, but whose values and actions continue to evolve in line with the
consciousness of the evolving spirit of that age. The apparent glue that holds
this all together has previously been covered under the prior thematic where Hegel uses the German word ‘Geist’ in his work
which is translated as “spirit” in English as in
the spirit of the age.
From the Phenomenology of the Spirit- Knowledge
Hegel is mostly in sync with Kant in that attributes knowledge is not
knowledge of “things-in-themselves,” or of the inputs from the senses. He was
in agreement with the rationalists such as Descartes who said we are only able
to trust the truths of the mind's comprehension on its own. This differed to
the Empiricists, who argued that all knowledge arises from perceptions of
actual objects, through our senses.
Hegel talks about different modes of consciousness involving meaning, perception and understanding
which supplies the evidence of the world in which we inhabit.
Hegel believed all of the different categories were real as
uncertainty gives rise to new perceptions that then become certainties.
To reiterate, individuals are immersed in the world and are constantly
mediating between the subjective and the collective moments of understanding. .
Lordship and Bondage as the Basis of Social Relations
Hegel agreed with the idealism of Kant, but takes the
matter a step forward to suggest self-consciousness is as a consequence of the
interactions through the eyes of another in society. Hence, this self-consciousness involves a social interaction and
identification with another’s consciousness.
Where inequality exists in relation to a subordinate
partner or in the case of a bondsman, the Lord is conscious of the others
lesser position. The Lord enjoys his status as in his freedom over his
subordinate other, who remains unessential to him. However, in doing so, the
lord may become uneasy or feel guilty in negating a consciousness with which he
has identified in order to assure himself of his independence and free status.
Hegel contends all life is founded on this social interaction. In other words
there are dynamic and competing moments of mutual identification where one
identifies or distances oneself from the other. It was within this master slave narrative that Carl Marx drew
his inspiration to formulate his manifesto.
The question arises however that a collective
consciousness at some point in time may relish in the idea of what later is
regarded as evil- as in slavery. Hegel gave considerable attention to the idea
of slavery which is outside the scope of this paper.
However, one might want to question his model of
self-consciousness.
Hegel and the Philosophy of History
Hegel’s
philosophy of history is perhaps the most fully developed philosophical theory
of history that attempts to discover meaning or direction in history (1824a,
1824b, 1857). Hegel regards history as an intelligible process moving towards a
specific condition—the realization of human freedom. “The question at issue is
therefore the ultimate end of mankind, the end which the spirit sets itself in the
world” (1857: 63). Hegel incorporates a deeper historicism into his
philosophical theories than his predecessors or successors. He regards the
relationship between “objective” history and the subjective development of the
individual consciousness (“spirit”) as an intimate one; this is a central
thesis in his Phenomenology of Spirit -1807.
Little, Daniel, "Philosophy of History", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter
2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/history/>.
In summary, Hegel, in line with modern philosophers, suggests one
questions the meaning of history and talks about early primitive versions to
become more reflective and untimely to ideally be governed by reason.
Hegel and History’ by Jack Fox – Williams.
In this respect Jack fox Williams article ' Hegel's understanding of
History' which appeared in the November 2020 edition of ‘Philosophy Now’ sheds
some further light on the matter.
Hegel’s third way of doing history, philosophical
history, prioritises thought above event-commentary, synthesising
philosophical concepts and ideas with historical information. Hegel himself is
doing this kind of activity when he famously argues that the process of human
history is a process of self-recognition guided by ‘the principle of reason’.
For Hegel, nature is the embodiment of reason. In the same way that
nature strives towards increasing complexity and harmony, so does the world
spirit through the historical process. The Pre-Socratic philosopher Anaxagoras
(c.500-428 BC) was the first person to argue that nous (meaning
reason, or maybe understanding in general) ultimately governs the world – not
as an intelligence, but like a fundamental essence of being. Hegel stresses the
importance of this distinction, using the solar system as an example. He
writes:
“The motion of the solar system proceeds according to immutable laws;
these laws are its reason. But neither the sun nor the planets which according
to these laws rotate around it, have any consciousness of it. Thus, the thought
that there is reason in nature, that nature is ruled by universal, unchangeable
laws, does not surprise us; we are used to it and make very little of it…” (Reason in History).
Moreover, Hegel argues that evidence of reason is revealed through
religious truth, which demonstrates that the world is governed not by chance
but by Providence. During profound moments of spiritual epiphany, we come to
the realisation that a divine order presides over the world. Providence is
wisdom endowed with an infinite power, which realises its own purpose, that is,
the absolute, rational, final purpose of the world; reason is “thought
determining itself in absolute freedom.” Hegel suggests that many stages of
human history appear irrational and regressive because society is made up of
individuals guided by passions, impulses and external forces. However, behind
the seeming irregularity of human history lies a divine plan that is hidden
from view and yet actualises itself through the historical process. As a result
of the many conflicts, revolutions and revolts that society endures, humanity
attains a greater glimpse of reason.
Hegel goes even further in the development of his argument and
suggests that the realisation of reason in history also serves as a
justification for belief in God. He acknowledges that history reveals the
cruelty and sadism of human nature, but urges “recognition of the positive
elements in which the negative element disappears as something subordinate and
vanquished.” Through the consciousness of reason, we recognise that the
ultimate purpose of the world is incrementally actualised through those
occasional historical events which bring about positive transformation and
change. In this sense, Hegel presents a highly progressive view of history,
perceiving the development of human society as a dynamic process by which our
rational faculties become ever more refined and cultivated. Although, there is
evil in the world, reason ultimately triumphs.
Finally he sums up Hegel’s rather optimistic conclusion.
The Greeks were aware of freedom, and rejected tyranny for democracy,
which is political freedom for the voting set. Their freedom was maintained
under conditions of slavery – a fact that made “liberty on the one hand only an
accidental, transient and limited growth; on the other hand, it constituted a
rigorous thraldom of our common nature of the Human.” So according to Hegel,
the German nations, under the influence of Christianity, were the first to come
to the realisation that man possesses free will. And even while slavery still
occurred under Christianity and subsequent political systems, the notion of
individual freedom has become central to states, governments, and
constitutions, first in the West, then elsewhere.
Conclusion
What can we say about Hegel’s dialectic as it applies to modernity?
Did it help in providing the synthesis for European
nations to adopt a liberal democratic system in the European style, which has
avoided war, after the atrocities of successive world wars?
What do we think about Hegel’s idea of world spirit?
What do we think of the idea that reason always ultimately triumphs? What do we
think of his model and so on?
Has Hegel contributed to a more rational view to peaceful
governance?
References
https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/hegel/
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hegel/
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